Chronology of The George Washington University and Foggy Bottom: 1765-1904

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Contents 1 GW, Foggy Bottom and The Washington Community 2 Sources: 3 Document Information 4 For more information about GW history

GW, Foggy Bottom and The Washington Community

This is an early survey of Washington, D.C. Circa 1795 showing the village of Hamburg and City of Alexandria. Courtesy: Library of Congress See also: Hamburg 1765: Jacob Funk, a German immigrant from Frederick, Maryland, purchased land, totaling 130 acres. He subdivided this land into 234 lots roughly located from H Street to the Potomac and 19th to 24th Streets. The area became known as Hamberg or Funkstown.

1791: President George Washington chose land on the Potomac River, including Georgetown, Md., and Alexandria, Va., for the national capital.

George Washington, Namesake for the University

1796: The first brewery in Washington was built around 1796 and located at B Street (later to become Constitution Ave.)

1797: Robert Peter built six three-story houses (for his sons) along K Street between 24th and 27th.

L’Enfants plan for the City

1799: President Washington died. His will directed that 50 shares in the Potomac Company be used to support a university in the District of Columbia.

1799-1801: The Treaty of Ghent, which ended the War of 1812, was signed at the Octagon house, built by John Taylor.

1800: The national government, including President John Adams and the Congress, moved to the District of Columbia. Washington had a population of 3,210.

1802: Washingtonians elected their first city council.

1803: Thomas Peter's house and the house next door were leased to Anthony Merry, the minister from Great Britain.

1809: The glass works of Edwards, Way and Company (located at 22nd and Constitution) began operations. (The Glass House)

1800-1810: During the period the District of Columbia's population increased from 14,000 to 24,000.

1814: During the War of 1812, the British captured the city of Washington, burnt the White House and other public buildings.

1819: Baptist missionary Luther Rice and others formed an association to establish a college and theological institution in the nation's capital under the direction of the Baptist General Missionary Convention.

The only image of the Reverend Luther Rice.

1820: The association purchases 47 acres of land for the new college just north of what is now Florida Avenue. Among the initial subscribers were President James Monroe and Secretary of State John Quincy Adams, each donating $50.

1821: February 9: Congress chartered Columbian College, a nonsectarian school but with Baptist sponsorship. President James Monroe signed the act.

Columbian College's first location became known as "College Hill." This 46 1/2 acre tract of land extended north of Boundary Street (now Florida Avenue) between 14th and 15th Streets, and was purchased for $7,000. The College's central building was a large structure for classes and boarding.

1821: May: Trustees elected Rev. Dr. William Staughton the first President of Columbian College.

• September (first Wednesday) Professor Irah Chase opened the Theological Department with 11 students.

William Staughton (1770-1829)was the first President of Columbian College 1821-1827. He was born in Coventry, England, January 4, 1770, and died in Washington, D. C. December 12, 1829. During Staughton’s tenure the Columbian College was located on “College Hill,” an area of land bordering Florida Avenue and 14th and 15th Streets, N.W.(today the area around Meridian Hill Park). Under his administration a Preparatory School was begun,as was the Medical School. The Theological Department was discontinued in 1825. Staughton presided over the first Commencement of the college in December 1824. In attendance were Secretary of State John Quincy Adams, Secretary of War John C. Calhoun,Speaker of the House Henry Clay, members of the Cabinet,the Justices of the Supreme Court, and the Marquis de Lafayette.

1822: A Classical Department was added. Enrollment reached 30, including 10 in the Preparatory School.

• March 6: Students organized the Enosinian debating society. Its proceedings eventually totaled 1,800 volumes.

This is a payment schedule for 1825. Classes at Columbian College began in 1822.

1824: December 15: Columbian College graduated its first class. President John Quincy Adams and the visiting Marquis de Lafayette were in attendance.

The Marquis de Lafayette, general and hero of the American Revolution, was the guest of honor, and was officially welcomed after the ceremonies by the Reverend William Staughton, first President of the College.

Special Profile: GWs First Graduation

The fall of 1824 was a time of jubilation for the nation, and a period of fruition for the young Columbian College in the District of Columbia. The College, which was founded in 1821, was preparing to graduate its first class of three seniors on December 15th, 1824. In its meeting on December 2nd, The Board of Trustees issued its MANDAMUS for the conferring of degrees and appropriated $500 to defray the costs of Commencement day. The formal announcement of the first Commencement was published in the Daily National Intelligencer "by the order of the faculty."

George Washington's dream for the creation of a federal college and the great interest in the institution by members of government illustrated the high regard given to the activities of Columbian College and its first graduates. In addition to members of the College and family and friends of the graduates, the Commencement ceremony was crowded with dignitaries. Several days before the graduation the Daily National Intelligencer noted that "General Lafayette would return to the city in time to be present at the Commencement of the Columbian College, on the 15th..." The exercises were also honored by the attendance of President James Monroe, Secretary of State John Quincy Adams, Secretary of War John C. Calhoun, Speaker of the House Henry Clay, members of the Cabinet, the Justices of the Supreme Court, Ministers from foreign powers, and many members of Congress. Of President Monroe (who signed the original charter for the college), the National Journal in 1824 wrote: "It must have been peculiarly affecting to our venerable Chief Magistrate, to witness, before retiring from his exalted station, the fruits of an institution, which has risen among us during his administration, and which promises to be so distinguished a blessing to our District and to the whole nation."

On a mild and sunny Wednesday morning at 9:30 a.m., a procession of students and faculty was formed on the grounds of the College. All students were directed to wear black silk gowns, "all of one and the same fashion," which could be purchased or rented from the College at a cost of $3.00. The assembly then proceeded to the Rev. Dr. Laurie's Presbyterian Meeting House, on F Street near 14th Street Northwest. Reverend Laurie's Meeting House had been chosen for the site of the graduation because of its ample space and its central location. The site was also very convenient for the distinguished guests and others attending the ceremonies since the campus was in a remote part of the District. At 10:30 a.m. the exercises began with music performed by the Marine Band, a tradition that would continue for several years. Degrees were conferred on three seniors and the final benediction bestowed by the President of the College.

These ribbons were worn by College members at the first graduation.

1825: The Medical Department began classes in anatomy, surgery and obstetrics in a "commodious" building at 10th and E Streets, N.W.

The Medical School’s first location (1824) was at the end of the block. Note Ford’s Theater in the center.

1825: Its plans for building a canal having failed, the Potomac Company went bankrupt. The shares designated by President Washington's will for support of a university became worthless.

1826-1828: William Cranch, long-time reporter of Supreme Court decisions, taught at the College's short-lived law school (later revived in 1865).

1826: An influential group of Baptists, meeting in New York, subscribed $50,000 to pay off part of the Columbian College debt.

Stephen Chapin was the second President of Columbian College 1828-1841. He was born in Milford, Massachusetts, Nov. 4, 1778, and died Oct. 1, 1845. He graduated from Harvard in 1804, and then studied theology under Rev. Nathaniel Emmons, of Franklin, Massachusetts. He entered the Congregational ministry and served as pastor at Hillsborough, N.H., from 1805 to 1808, and at Mount Vernon, N.H., from 1809 to 1818. Having changed his views on the mode and subjects of baptism, Chapin entered the Baptist ministry, and in 1819 was ordained pastor of the church at North Yarmouth, Maine. In 1822 he accepted the professorship of theology in Waterville College (now Colby University), and remained there until 1828, when he became President of the Columbian College. This position he retained until 1841, when failing health compelled him to resign. He was a man of culture and learning, and won the regard of all with whom he associated. In Washington he was intimate with the leading statesmen and scholars of his day. His published works include sermons, addresses and essays. Under Chapin’s administration, the first Master of Arts degrees were awarded and an Act of Congress conferred on the school a federal grant of $25,000 in city lots. At the very end of Chapin's tenure, Columbian College was free of debt.

1827: May 1: Classes were suspended during an acute financial crisis. Senior professors resigned. A handful of students remained in residence.

1828: May 13: Classes resumed with a three-month summer term. A normal cycle of spring and fall semesters was restored in September.

• Congress canceled $30,000 of College debt in exchange for College property on Greenleaf's Point.

• The Chesapeake and Ohio (C&O) Canal began construction.

1829: After Andrew Jackson was inaugurated as President, a mob of his followers invaded the White House, breaking furniture and causing consternation.

Courtesy of a photograph taken from a painting by Anna C. Peale, 1830. Dr. James M. Staughton, M.D., Professor of Chemistry and Surgery was appointed professor of chemistry and geology the first year the college was in existence.

1831: The first part of the Chesapeake and Ohio Canal opened, linking the Potomac River with Rock Creek.

1832: Congress conveyed 180 saleable house lots in Washington to the College. The proceeds were used for endowment and debt reduction.

1833: The original building of the Concordia Lutheran Church at 20th and G Streets was founded.

1836: Englishman James Smithson bequeathed his entire estate to the United States to establish in Washington an institution "for the increase and diffusion of knowledge." This became the Smithsonian Institution.

Thomas Miller-M.D., Professor of Surgery, Anatomy , Physiology, Emeritus President of Faculty in 1839.

William Patrick Johnston-Professor of Surgery, Obstetrics, President of the Faculty in 1842.

1843: The city council of Washington passed a law making the public schools free to all white children.

Joel Smith Bacon was President of Columbian College from 1843 to 1854. Martin Van Buren's first term as President of the United States had been severely damaged by the financial panic of 1837, and he failed in his 1840 bid for re-election. The new President, William Henry Harrison, had garnered some of his public appeal by portraying himself as a humble farmer (in reality, he was the wealthy owner of 2,000 acres of land). Joel Smith Bacon came to Columbian College from Hamilton College three years after Harrison's election. He oversaw the transition as the College's Department of Medicine moved to the old jail in Judiciary Square and became the National Medical College, one of the nation's first teaching hospitals. Other innovations included a program in natural science leading to the degree of Bachelor of Philosophy, the college's first alumni association, and the awarding of the first Doctor of Laws degree.

1844: Congress granted the College use of a building at Judiciary Square as an infirmary. It became the first general hospital in the District of Columbia and one of the nation's first teaching hospitals.

1846: Congress reduced the size of the District of Columbia by one-third when it gave Alexandria back to the state of Virginia.

Circular of the Washington Infirmary, Medical Department of the Columbian College, Washington, D.C. 1846. The use of this structure in Judiciary Square, originally the jail but reconstructed as an insane asylum, was granted to the Medical faculty by Congressional action on June 15, 1844, 'for purposes of an infirmary, for medical instruction, and scientific purposes.' In this form it was used until 1852...

1847: Student Henry Arnold was expelled for conspiring to free a slave owned by the College steward.

• Twenty-seven graduates formed the Alumni Association of Columbian College. Their first project was to endow a professorship.

• The first alumni association of the Columbian College was formed on Commencement Day in 1847.

1848: The cornerstone for the Washington Monument was laid.

1849: Congressman Abraham Lincoln of Illinois proposed the abolition of slavery in the District of Columbia.

1850: The Chesapeake and Ohio Canal was completed.

1851: Congress passed a law abolishing the slave trade in D.C.

1852: Faculty urged creation of a new department distinct from the Classical Department combining studies in English, mathematics, science and engineering.

• The Baltimore and Ohio Railroad began running trains into central Washington. Its depot was on New Jersey Avenue at Northwest C Street.

1853: The City of Washington installed gas lamps along all the major thoroughfares and hired a lamplighter to light them.

The Rev. Joseph Getchell Binney D.D. (1807-1877)was the fourth President of the College 1855-1858. He was born at Boston, Massachusetts, Dec. 1, 1807, and died at sea Nov. 26, 1877, while returning to Burma. He was educated at Yale and Newton Theological Seminary, and was ordained in 1832. Binney settled in Savannah, Georgia, but in 1843 left for India to engage in missionary work among the Karens. He established in 1845 the Karen Seminary for the training of native ministers, but after some years he returned to America, owing to the precarious health of Mrs. Binney. He was engaged for a time as pastor at Elmira New York and Augusta, Georgia, and in 1855 accepted the Presidency of Columbian College. He resigned in 1858 to resume his work among the Karens, where he labored with great success until 1875 when failing health caused him to take a trip to America. On his return, in 1877, he died at sea and was buried in the Indian Ocean. In 1855 the Columbian College awarded the degrees of Bachelor of Arts, Master of Arts, and the Bachelor of Philosophy. German was also added to the curriculum during Binney’s tenure.

1857: Congress chartered a school for deaf and dumb children. It later merged with the Columbian Institution for the Deaf, Dumb and Blind led by Edward Gallaudet.

Rev. George W. Samson, President of Columbian College, 1859-71. Two days after James Buchanan's inauguration in 1857, the Dred Scott Decision was handed down by the Supreme Court. For the abolitionists of the North, it was a stimulus to still stronger efforts in the battle against slavery. In the mid-term elections of 1858, the badly split Democrats suffered a resounding defeat and the way was clear for the emergence of the Republicans under Lincoln. To the Rev. George Whitefield Samson, formerly Pastor of the E Street Baptist Church, fell the difficult task of guiding Columbian College through the Civil War.

1859: Washington's first water system was completed. It soon proved inadequate.

• The site of the Glass House was leased to the H. C. Wilson Company of Philadelphia to manufacture lampblack and roofing cement.

1860: Students helped construct a gymnasium on College Hill.

• Ann's Infant Asylum was founded.

• An equestrian statue of George Washington was installed at Washington Circle. Depicting George Washington at the Battle of Princeton, the statue was designed by Clark Mills. The statue did not improve the area to any great degree and the Civil War forestalled further public improvements.

• Foggy Bottom had at least one inhabited alley, Snow's Court, which was in Square 28.

1861-1865: The Civil War transformed life in Washington. The city, close to the Confederate forces, became an armed camp. During the war Foggy Bottom was often crowded with corrals for 3,000 horses and mules, extensive barracks and wagon sheds.

President Abraham Lincoln The Civil War split the College as it did the nation. When the conflict began, most of the students left their classrooms to join the Southern forces. The faculty as well was split by their opposing loyalties.

1861: The Medical School Infirmary downtown was destroyed by fire. The Columbian College was converted to a hospital. With 844 beds, it became one of four major military hospitals in Washington.

Dr. A.Y.P. Garnett, Professor of Anatomy since 1854, departed for the South, where he served as physician to Jefferson Davis, President of the Confederacy.

Dr. Robert King Stone was on the faculty of the Columbian College Medical School. He became the personal physician to Abraham Lincoln.

Civil War: U.S. government commandeered the College Hill campus and the hospital downtown. Despite sagging enrollment, professors continued to hold classes, often in their homes. Columbian College graduated a total of 300 students, of whom 104 entered the ministry. Forty-six of the school's medical graduates served in the Union Army, 24 in the Confederate.

• In 1861 Camp Fry was located in Foggy Bottom south of Washington Circle along 23rd street. The Camp and barracks were dismantled in 1865, shortly after the end of the Civil War.

1862: All slaves in the District of Columbia were granted Congressional compensatory emancipation.

This is an engraving of Carver Barracks in 1862. On orders of President Lincoln, much of the campus was taken over by the federal government for use as two army hospitals, barracks, accommodations for the sick, and troop quarters.

1863: President Abraham Lincoln issued The Emancipation Proclamation.

1864: William H. Godey established The Godey Lime Kilns on Rock Creek at 27th Street.

This 1864 lithograph by Charles Magnus shows the Carver Barracks on Columbian College’s campus. The original Columbian College building, red brick building left of center, housed Union soldiers during the War.

1865: April 14: Columbian Professor of Surgery John F. May attended the dying President, Abraham Lincoln. An enlarged government bureaucracy created more part-time students and part-time professors.

• A revived Law Department became self-sustaining and revenue-producing.

1865-1900: It was during this period that Foggy Bottom became a true neighborhood.

1866: The first Foggy Bottom Hospital was established in 1866, the Columbia Hospital for Women at L between 24th and 25th Streets.

1867: St. Paul's Episcopal Church was established and located south of Washington Circle on 23rd Street--now the GW Hospital.

1868: St. Stephen's Catholic Church was built. The land was purchased in 1865. The Church was dedicated on December 25. The citizens of the District were granted suffrage.

• Howard University was chartered. It was originally a biracial institution.

1870: The District population was 109,199.

Law School Commencement Admission Ticket

1871: Congress changed the charter to create a non-denominational Board of Trustees. James Clarke Welling became the College's first lay president.

Dr. James C. Welling was President of Columbian University from 1871 to 1894. The scandal-ridden presidency of Ulysses S. Grant (he was elected to a second term in 1872) had caused a good deal of national demoralization when Dr. James Clarke Welling, former president of St. John's College in Maryland and former holder of the Chair of Belles Lettres at Princeton University, began his distinguished tenure at Columbian College--soon to be known, following an Act of Congress in 1873, as Columbian University.

1871-1874: A brief period of territorial government was established for the District. Alexander "Boss" Shepherd started a citywide public works project.

• The project improved city services but ended with a near bankrupt city.

1872: The first student protest was recorded in the Law School, over a diploma fee.

• Christian Heurich established the Heurich Brewery. The first brewery was on 20th Street. N.W. In 1895 it was moved to 25th and Water Streets.

1873: March 3: Columbian College became The Columbian University by Act of Congress.

1870s: The University purchased buildings on H Street, N.W., between 13th and 15th Streets.

1870s: John Albert started The Abner Drury Brewing Company in the 1870s.

1878: Congress passed the Organic Act, depriving Washington of all self-government. City administration was in the hands of three commissioners appointed by the President of the United States.

1880s: By the 1880s the West End Hibernian Society was established at 19th and Pennsylvania Avenue.

1881: The University established a policy permitting the admission of women. This was considered by the University to be a trial basis.

• After his retirement from the Supreme Court, Justice William Strong joined the Law School faculty.

1881-1882: Trustees completed the long contemplated sale of the College Hill property (now in bad repair and with only 39 students in residence). The University moved to H Street between 13th and 15th.

1882: Electric lights were installed on some of Washington's major streets.

1883: The Law School faculty declined to admit women as "not required by any public want."

(The Original 13 Women at Columbian College) In 1883 the Law faculty voted not to admit women. The members of the medical faculty were somewhat more venturesome. In late 1884, they admitted four women, but soon found reason to regret it. Although Clara Bliss Hinds earned the University's first medical degree awarded to a woman in 1887, the faculty ultimately succumbed to the ambiguities of Victorian sensibility. After trying for seven years to maintain separate sex medical instruction the faculty reached the point where, they concluded, the strain on modesty had become too great. From Strength to Strength: A History of The George Washington University, 1996

1884 October: Classes in the College, the Law School and the Corcoran Scientific School began at the newly constructed Columbian University building, 15th and H Streets, N.W.

• December 11: Medical faculty reversed an earlier decision and voted to admit four women. Clara Bliss Hines was the first Columbian female MD--Class of 1887.

• The Corcoran Scientific School was organized.

1886: The growing African American population in the area commissioned James Renwick to design the St. Mary's Episcopal Church, located on the west side of 23rd Street between G and H.

1887: The Dental School was organized.

1888: Trustees awarded the University's first Ph.D. degrees to two faculty members.

• Elizabeth Preston Brown and Louise Connolly graduated from the Corcoran Scientific School, the first to do so. Miss Connolly majored in teaching while Ms. Brown majored in computer.

• September 24: Mabel Nelson Thurston was the first woman undergraduate admitted to Columbian College. Twelve other women were admitted the same year.

The Corcoran Scientific School was established in 1888, and the School of Comparative Jurisprudence and Diplomacy followed in 1898. By order of the Corporation of the University at the 1892 annual meeting, a School of Graduate Studies was established, offering thirty different fields of graduate study toward secondary degrees.

1889: Catholic University of America opened in Washington.

• Supreme Court Justices John Marshall Harlan and David Josiah Brewer joined the Law School faculty; each served for almost 20 years.

The Alumni Class of 1890.

1891: Electric lights were installed on the first floor of the University Building.

1892: The University Treasurer was authorized to have a telephone installed.

• The Medical School ended its experiment in coeducation.

• Congress banned the construction of housing without sewers, water or light on alleys less than thirty feet wide. No construction was permitted on blind alleys.

• The Naval Observatory was moved from the building on Camp Hill to Massachusetts Avenue.

1893: A faculty reception marked the opening of the School of Graduate Studies. Requirements were set for the awarding of graduate degrees in the College, the Medical School and the Corcoran Scientific School.

1894: Columbian Women, an organization composed of alumnae, students, and wives of the faculty, trustees and officers was organized in 1894 for the purpose of advancing the interests of women and the university.

1896: The city of Georgetown was incorporated into Washington, and became a fashionable section of the greater city.

1897: The Library of Congress moved from the Capitol to a new building that cost more than $6 million. It became the largest library in the world and a valued resource for Columbian University.

1898: Congress changed the charter (temporarily) to permit Baptist denominational control in expectation of greater church funding, but the support does not materialize. The University returned permanently to its non-denominational character in 1904.

• The "Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Freshmen" was founded on March 1st at 9:30 P.M. and disbanded on March 2nd at 3:30 A.M.

• College junior William L. Mitchell volunteered to serve in the war with Spain. During World War I and the 1920s, General Billy Mitchell achieved fame as a champion of air power. He later completed degree requirements and received his B.A. in 1919 "as of the class of 1899."

• The medical faculty opened University Hospital on H Street, N.W. between 13th and 14th.

• A new School of Comparative Jurisprudence and Diplomacy was founded. It was replaced in 1905 by the School of Politics and Diplomacy, a predecessor to the Elliott School of International Affairs.

1900: The "City Beautiful" movement inspired plans for vast improvements in the capital city's parks and public spaces.

• The City of Washington celebrated its 100th anniversary.

1901: The McMillan Commission was established to beautify the District.

1902: A student newspaper, The Weekly Columbian, was launched. Two years later, the paper changed its name to The Hatchet.

• The Corcoran Scientific School, and the School of Graduate Studies were merged into one Department of Arts and Sciences.

Dr. Charles Willis Needham (1848-1935) was the seventh President of The George Washington University (1902-1910). He was born September 30, 1848 in Castile, New York. He died June 1, 1935 in LaSalle, Illinois. He attended Castile Academy and Albany Law School, where he earned an LL.B. degree. He received LL.D. degrees from Rochester University and Georgetown University, Kentucky. From 1874-90 Needham practiced law in Chicago and then in Washington, D.C. He became professor of law at Columbian, now George Washington University in 1897 and was selected as President in 1902. A Baptist layman and Dean of the Law School when elected as the eighth President of the University, Needham was hampered by financial difficulties. His tenure was nevertheless marked by many outstanding events. A training school for Nurses in connection with the Columbian University Hospital was opened, and in 1904 an Act secularizing the University and authorizing a change in the name to "The George Washington University" was passed by Congress. The first convocation of the newly named University was held in 1905, where the new seal and flag were displayed for the first time.

1903: The Reminiscences of An Astronomer was published. It described the area around the Naval Observatory.

• The Heurich and Abner/Drury Breweries were two of nine in Washington D.C.

Special Profile: First Winter Convocation/Flag

On the twenty-second of February 1905, the Trustees, Members of the Faculties, alumni, and students of The George Washington University met in University Hall and then proceeded to Lafayette Opera House, where the Convocation exercises were held. Music was furnished by the United States Marine Band. The University Glee Club sang.

President Charles Willis Needham then opened the proceedings by announcing the official adoption of a University flag, which was hanging draped above the stage. While the Marine Band played The George Washington March," the official President's march during the administration of President Washington, the flag was unveiled by Mr. Irvin S. Peper, president of the Association of Class Presidents. The new seal of the University, the design of which was adopted by the Board of Trustees on November 16, 1904, was formally accepted as the seal of the University from this date. Both the seal and the flag were designed and donated by Mr. Frederick D. Owen, of Washington.

The University Seal

The seal of the George Washington University shall be two inches in diameter, bearing the arms of the University, as follows: Or, the head of George Washington, as painted by Gilbert Stuart, on a chief (azure), an open Testament showing the following words from Chapter I, verses 1-4, of the Gospel according to St. John: On the left-hand page (original on seal is in Greek) translated, "In the beginning was the Word, and the Word was with God, and the Word was God." On the right-hand page, (again the original, on the seal, is in Greek) "In Him was life, and the life was the light of men." Upon the background the words Deus Nobis Fiducia, "God in our Trust."

1904: January 23 Congress approved a name change from Columbian University to The George Washington University. The change came at the prompting of the George Washington Memorial Association.

Sources:

• Building a University; an article published in IT magazine by G. David and Blanche Anderson, 1994.

• City of Magnificent Intentions: A History of Washington, District of Columbia, by Keith Melder, second edition. Washington D.C. and Silver Spring, Maryland, Intac, Inc., 1997.

• Foggy Bottom 1800-1975: A Study in the Uses of an Urban Neighborhood. by Suzanne Berry Sherwood, GW Washington Studies, No. 7, Center for Washington Area Studies, The George Washington University, 1974. GW Magazine, 1996

• Michelin Tourist Guide to Washington, D.C. Michelin Travel Publications, Greenville, SC. 1977.

• GW press releases 1996-1999

• Washington At Home: An Illustrated History of Neighborhoods in the Nation's Capital, Kathryn Schneider Smith, editor. "Foggy Bottom Blue-Collar Neighborhood in a White-Collar Town," by Suzanne Sherwood Unger, 1988.

• Washington Evening Star

• Washington Post

• Washington, D.C.: The Complete Guide, 1994-1995 edition. by Judy Duffield, William Kramer & Cynthia Sheppard

• Bricks Without Straw, Elmer L. Kayser, 1970.

• Historical Almanac

Document Information

Images: 0
Photographic Credit: n/a
Author or Source: See Endnotes
Document Location: University Archives
Date Added to Encyclopedia: December 11, 2006
Prepared by: G. David Anderson, University Archivist and Historian

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